Issues Of Indoor Air Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

Issues Of Indoor Air Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay Air pollution is an expression used to describe a state when the chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials exceeds the recommended levels and become a source that harm effects or cause discomfort to humans and other organisms, or cause damages to the living natural environment. Pollution can be resulted from man-made daily industrial processes and activities or by the nature. There are many forms of pollutants solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. Indoor air pollution can be arises from indoor and outdoor pollutant sources. People, especially students, spend about 90% of their live in enclosed controlled environments. These closed enclosed environments could have short or long terms of harm health effects on occupants according to the quality of the inside air (pollution levels). In recent years, the issue of indoor air and its quality (IAQ) has become an internationally recognized issue that caught the attention of researchers and the occupants toward improving the quality of air inside buildings environments. Fanger (2006) defines the indoor air quality (IAQ) as the desire of human to perceive the air as fresh and pleasant, with no negative impacts on their heath and productivity. Many researchers such as Wark and Warner (1981) investigated the sources of the outdoor and the indoor pollution that affected the indoor air. They found that the indoor air quality can be influenced by the outdoor air pollution sources such as traffic; industrial; construction, and combustion activities and the indoor sourc es such as ventilation equipment, furnishings, and human activities. Common Indoor Air Pollutants In this section, a total of 11 common indoor air quality parameters and its outdoor and indoor source in addition to it is health hazard on human shall be discussed. The IAQ parameters consists of three physical parameters (room temperature, relative humidity, and air movement) related to occupants thermal comfort which is defined in the previous section, nine chemical parameters (sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), particulates matters (PM), formaldehyde (HCHO) , radon (Rn) and ozone (O3)).In addition to the discussion of microbiological parameters (airborne bacteria, viruses, fungi and pollen), dust, odors and hydrocarbons. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) This type of pollutant gas has been extensively studied by many researchers around the world in outdoors environments due to it is high tendency to react with wide range of chemicals. SO2 is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor and results from the fossil fuels combustion. Acid rain is one of the outdoor pollution problem cased by this gas. Indoor SO2 concentrations are usually lower than outdoor, probably around 0.1 ppm, (Andersen 1972; Yocom, 1982 and Meyer, 1983). Due to it tendency to react with many chemicals, indoor SO2 can reacts with building materials and absorbed by the building surfaces (Andersen 1972). This gas can dissolves in water and mixes with air in all temperatures. The main indoor sources of SO2 are coal burning inside fireplaces and using fuel oil stoves and heaters. Sulfur dioxide causes headache, general discomfort, anxiety, and inflammation of the respiratory tract, wheezing, lung damage, and irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, choking and coughing. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Nitrogen dioxide is formed in outdoor atmosphere from high temperature combustion processes by the reaction of the nitric oxide (NO) with Oxygen (O2) and Ozone (O3). Motor vehicles contribute to about 55% of the manmade NOx emissions, EPA (2008). The major sources of this gas in indoors environments are gas cooking stoves and heater and tobacco smoke. In a study done by Yocom (1982) among British school children it was found that students whom suffer from reduced respiratory function are living in houses with gas stoves. Exposure to low levels of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) causes shortness of breath, tiredness, nausea and irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs; exposure to high levels cause rapid burning, spasms, swelling of tissues in the throat and upper respiratory tract, reduced oxygenation of body tissues, a build-up of fluid in the lungs, and may lead to death. Carbon monoxide (CO) CO is a very poisonous and non irritating gas that has no color, odor or taste. This gas produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels (Yocom, 1982 and Meyer, 1983). Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide, EPA (2008). The indoor carbon monoxide concentrations are often higher than the outdoor concentrations due to the emission from gas stoves and tobacco smoke, Yocom (1982). The main effect of this gas on human health is its affinity for hemoglobin in blood. The inhaled CO mixes with the hemoglobin in the blood and forms carboxyhemoglobin that reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood vessels. CO is 250 times more efficient at hemoglobin binding than Oxygen. Exposure to carbon monoxide causes headaches, shortness of breath, muscle aches, chest pain, especially in people with previous heart problems history, blurry vision, dizziness, nausea/vomiting, weakness, confusion, fatigue, rapid heart rate at high levels, fast deep breathing at high levels, fainting and death at high levels [CPSC Document #466, 2008]. Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless greenhouse gas emitted from the complete combustion of the carbon with Oxygen. The average typical concentrations of CO2 in the outdoor environment are 350-400 ppm, where the indoor concentrations are higher than those of the outdoor. The principal sources of the indoor CO2 are human body through the metabolism process (food consumption), and occupants activity. The health problems associated with carbon dioxide exposure are headaches, dizziness, restlessness, feeling of an inability to breathe, malaise (vague feeling of discomfort), increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, visual distortion, impaired hearing, nausea/vomiting, loss of consciousness, coma, convulsions, death from asphyxiation (body cells do not get the oxygen they need to live). Particulate matter (PM) Particulate matter (PM) or fine particles are a mixture of tiny solid particles of solid and liquid droplets suspended in air. Particulate matter can be generated from man made (fossil fuels combustion processes) or natural (volcanoes, dust storms, and forest and grassland fires). There are many sources of the indoor particles such as pets, gas stoves, and tobacco smoke. Particles classified according to its size as fine particles are those whose size is smaller than 2.5 ÃŽÂ ¼m and coarse particles are those which are larger than 2.5 ÃŽÂ ¼m. Heinrich and Slama (2007) argued that the fine particles are the major threat source that affects the children health, where exposing to fine particles can results in cardiac and respiratory problems, [Dockery et al. (1993), Dockery and Pope (1994), Pope et al. (2002), Wu et al. (2005), Gilliland et al. (2005)]. The PM metals components are a major source that involves in the development of pulmonary, cardiovascular and allergic diseases, S chwarze et al. (2006). Exposure to high levels of fine particles causes health hazards such as heart diseases; respiratory diseases; altered lung functions, especially in children, and lung cancer and death. Formaldehyde (HCHO) Formaldehyde is a colorless with a strong pungent odor and considered as the most important substance in the aldehydes group due to it is mostly used in the production process of many building materials such as foam insulation, plywood, carpets, combustion appliances and particle board adhesives which releases again the formaldehyde to the indoor environment. The typical indoor formaldehyde concentrations range from 0.05 to 1 ppm, where in the new buildings the indoor levels of the formaldehyde are high, (Meyer, 1983; Samet et al., 1991) and most of the complains were from buildings with formaldehyde foam insulation and mobile homes that uses plywood paneling, Wadden (1983). The rate of diffusion of this substance is a function of the indoor temperature and humidity. Exposing to formaldehyde can cause health effects include eye, nose, and throat irritation; wheezing and coughing; fatigue; skin rash; severe allergic reactions, EPA (2008). High concentrations of formaldehyde may cause cancer and other effects listed under organic gases. Radon (Rn) Radon is an inert radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless noble chemical gas element. Naturally, this element can be found as soil gas contained radon formed from the decay product of uranium and can remains as a gas under normal environmental conditions. This contaminant element can be found indoors due to some sources such as building materials especially that rich with radium, such as alum shale-based material and phosphogypsum wallboard, deep wells water natural gas having high radon concentrations. Another principal source is the flow of the soil gas into the homes through building cracks, sumps and any other openings or around the concrete slab, Bale (1980) Handbook ch. 40. Due to tightness of the buildings design, the indoor concentrations are usually higher than that in outdoor environment. Recently, this element is considered as carcinogen element du to it is radioactivity, which has a vital health hazard on buildings occupants, where it is considered to be the second mo st reason of lung cancer after cigarette smoking, EPA (2008). Ozone (O3) Ozone is a very reactive pollutant that can oxidizes most of the chemicals in nature such as aldehydes. In natural outdoor environment, Ozone produces from the effect of the sunlight on the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons. Usually the Ozone concentrations in the outdoor environment are higher than that found in indoors. The main sources of the high indoor Ozone concentration are the photocopy machines, laser printers, electrostatic air cleaners and x-ray generators, (Yocom, 1982 and Wadden, 1983). These sources develop electrostatic fields that can generate highly toxic concentrations of ozone in air. Exposing to low concentration levels of Ozone can cause eye irritation, visual disturbances, headaches, dizziness, mouth and throat irritation, chest pain, insomnia, breath shortness and coughing (Sittig 1991), where exposure to high levels of ozone can reduce lung function or respiratory problems, such as asthma or bronchitis. Microbiological Parameters Fungi, molds, viruses, bacteria and pollen are types of the microbiological indoor contaminants. The major sources of these contaminants are human, animals and plants and it can be found anywhere these sources are available, Meyer (1983). Due to the insufficient maintenance of the HVAC system parts (condensers, cooling coils, ducts and drainage pans) it can be another source of contamination by encouraging the proliferation of the microbes, (Wark and Warner, 1981 and Samet et al., 1991). The concentrations of the indoor microbes are higher than that in the outdoor environment due to the building tightness and the source availability. Dust ASHRAE (2009) defines dust as solid particles projected into air by natural forces such as wind, volcanic eruption, earthquakes, or by mechanical processes including crushing, grinding, demolition, blasting, screening, drilling, shoveling and sweeping. Dust immigrates from outside to inside environment by infiltration air through the buildings crack, unsealed windows and doors and through the ventilation system. Dust has health effects on people with ultra-sensitive lungs such as people with asthma, young children and elderly people. Dust causes discomfort for people and damages home furniture and household equipment. Odors Indoor odors are arising from occupants body and their indoor activities such as smoking, cooking, garbage, sewage and industrial processes. The human body normally dissipates around 200 types of chemicals which are responsible for the human odors, (Meyer, 1983). Odors do not have any major effects on the occupants health, but it causes discomfort sensation to the occupants which make it as a sign of the poor indoor air quality. Hydrocarbons Most of the indoor hydrocarbons sources are results from the different housekeeping materials such as widows, oven, drain, clothing cleaners, paint solvent and human use materials such as deodorants, shaving creams, hair sprays and air refreshers sprays. The indoor hydrocarbons levels reach high levels when housekeeping is in progress, Meyer (1983). The indoor cooking gas (mostly Propane gas) is considered also a major source of the indoor hydrocarbons which may results in serious fire accidents or death due to insufficient maintenance or checking for the gas burner and cooking equipment, Meyer (1983). During this study, the CO2 contaminant will be studied to investigate the indoor air quality inside Kuwaitis classrooms. The indoor concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) has often been used as a surrogate for the ventilation rate per occupant, (Lee and Chang, 1999 and Daisey et al., 2003), where providing good ventilation rates with sufficient amounts of fresh air can dilutes and reduces the concentrations levels of indoor air pollution generated by the different indoor pollutants sources. International and Kuwait Indoor Air Quality Standards and Regulations Since the last decade, researchers were interested to investigate the indoor air pollution for different indoor environments and the contaminant sources to indicate the acceptable indoor concentration levels for these pollutants. As a result of these researches, many IAQ standards and regulations have been developed and established by different organizations indicates the recommended acceptable concentrations levels for these indoor pollutants. These standards are established according to the purpose and activity of the indoor zone and characteristics of it is users or occupants. For this reason, sometimes it can be found some differences in values for the same pollutant. A summary of the common indoor air pollutants standards are given in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: International and Kuwait Standards and Guidelines for Common Indoor Air Pollutants, (in ppm). NIOSH (1992) Canadian (1995) OSHA MAK (2000) NAAOS/EPA (2000) WHO-Europe (2000) ACGIH (2001) Hong Kong (2003) KW-EPA (2001) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 2 [8 hr] 5 [15 min] 0.019 0.38 [5 min] 5 0.5 1.0 [5 min] 0.14 [24 hr] 0.03 [1 yr] 0.047 [24 hr] 0.019 [1 yr] 2 [8 hr] 5 [15 min] 2 [8 hr] 5 [15 min] Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 1.0 [15 min] 0.05 0.25 [1 hr] 5 [Ceiling] 5 10 [5 min] 0.05 [1 yr] 0.1 [1 hr] 0.02 [1 yr] 3 5 [15 min] 0.021 0.08 [ 8 hr] 0.026 0.08 [8 hr] Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 5000 30000 [15 min] 3500 5000 5000 10000 [15 min] 5000 30000 [15 min] 800 1000 [8 hr] 600 1000 [8 hr] Carbon Monoxide (CO) 35 200 [Ceiling] 11 [8 hr] 25 [1 hr] 50 30 60 [ 30 min] 9 [8 hr] 35 [1 hr] 86 [15 min] 51 [30 min] 25 [1 hr] 8.6 [8 hr] 25 1.7 / 8.7 [8 hr] 86 [15 min] 51 [30 min] 25 [1 hr] 8.6 [8 hr] Particular Matter ( 0.1 mg/m3 [1 hr] 0.04 mg/m3 [8 hr] 5 mg/m3 1.5 mg/m3 For 35ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3[24hr] 15ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3[1 yr] 3 mg/m3 0.23 mgm3 [24 hr] 0.07 mg/m3 [1 yr] Formaldehyde (HCHO) 0.016 0.1 [15 min] 0.1 0.04[8 hr] 0.75 2 [15 min] 0.3 1.0 [5 min] 0.4 0.081 [30 min] 0.3 [ceiling] 0.024 / 0.081 [8 hr] 0.08 [30 min] Radon (Rn) 800 Bq/m3e 4 pCi/L [1 yr] 2.7 pCi/L [1 yr] 4.1 5.4 pCi/L [8 yr] 4 pCi/L [1 yr] Ozone (O3) 0.1 [Ceiling] 0.12 [1 hr] 0.1 0.12 [1 hr] 0.08 [8 hr] 0.06 [8 hr] 0.05 heavy work 0.2 any work [2 hr] 0.025 0.061 [8 hr] 0.03 0.1 [8 hr] Numbers in brackets [ ] refers to average time (min=minutes; hr=hours and yr=years)

Joan Of Arc By Jules Basten Lepage Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Joan of Arc,† was painted by the French realist artist Jules Bastien-Lepage in 1879. â€Å"After the province of Lorraine was lost to Germany following the Franco-Prussian War in 1821, The Frenchmen saw in Joan of Arc a new and powerful symbol. In 1875, Bastien-Lepage, a native of Lorraine began to make studies for a picture of her. In the present painting, exhibited in the Salon of 1880, Joan is shown receiving her revelation in her parents garden. Behind her are Saints Michael, Margaret, and Catherine. (Caption next to painting in The Metropolitan)†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jules Bastien-Lepage creates a realistic atmosphere, including a supernatural, religious-like presence within his painting. Oil on canvas was used to create the realistic quality of the work. By closely examining the artist’s technique, it is clear that he uses delicate brush strokes in a true to life manner. The colors, and use of light seem to be painted in a layered fashion to give the landscape a sense of depth. The background of the painting is a garden which include foliage and brush that surrounds the primary focus of the painting, Joan of Arc. The artist put a great effort into the details of the scene. Bastien-Lepage uses a distinct realistic quality in his painting which is visible in each individual leaf and branch. Various hues of earth tones, green and brown being the most evident, are blended together in the garden scene.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In...

J.B.Priestley’s play, An Inspector Calls :: English Literature

An Inspector Calls Discuss the character of Sheila in â€Å"An Inspector Calls† Sheila Birling is the daughter of Mr Arthur Birling and Mrs Sybil Birling. She has a younger brother called Eric Birling. Sheila is in her early twenties and is in a high social class. However they are said to be â€Å"nouveux rishe† because her father wasn’t born into a wealthy family, he made his own way through life to be were he is. This, in a way, justifies the attitude and manners his children and himself. What I mean by this is that he hasnt got the sophisted vocabulary we would expect a man in his position would have. Sheila and Eric also seem to have this lack of â€Å"manners† and sophistecated vocabulary. â€Å"Dont be an ass† Sheila says this to Eric at the table. As we can see this is quite a modern vocabulary and not proper of a rich family.This contrasts grately with the behaviour and vacabulary of her mother. Sheila shows herself as an impressionable girl. She is willing to accept new ideas and concepts. She has an honest and attractive character and shows quite a different character than that of her parents. She is not so â€Å"cold-blooded†. This makes her able to change her attitude as the play progresses. I think Sheila represents two of the deadly sins. She represents envy in the shop where she went to buy the dress. She envied the way Eva looked in the dress. She also represents wrath (great anger).. Sh represents this mostly in her behaviour at Milwards. Sheila, before the inspector comes, is very immature and quite naà ¯ve as well.. She seems to say rather immature things especially to Eric using slang phrases such as â€Å"You’re squiffy†. This shows her little consciousness towards the power Gerald has over her. She doesn’t seem to realise that she is using slang vocabulary infront of her fiancà © which belongs to a high status family. Early in the play she shows herself to be a very dependent girl, looking to her parents for most decisions that need to be made. Her marriage to Gerald was a marriage of businesses, as well as love. I doubt Sheila saw this at the time, or just ignored this fact. Sheila is also quite a spoilt girl since she has everything she wants. This is shown in her attitude in Milwards. Here she shows that she relies on others and cares little for the lower classes. I think Priestly chooses to represent her like this at first so that we can realise the big change she makes as the play progresses.

The World of Telecommunications Essay -- Telecommunications Technology

The World of Telecommunications We are in the midst of a global information revolution driven by the convergence and proliferation of information and communication technologies. The telecommunications sector is changing at warp speed, driven by technological innovation that results in new equipment and services, and also by new entrants and alliances between companies with experience in a wide range of information industries from telecommunications to broadcasting to computer hardware and software to publishing. Three major trends are driving these changes: the rapid introduction of new technologies and services;the restructuring of the telecommunications sector; and globalization of economies and of communications. Together these developments are not only changing the world of telecommunications, but the ways people work, learn, and interact. The Death of Distance"The death of distance as a determinant of the cost of communications will probably be the single most important economic force shaping society in the fi rst half of the next century." The death of distance could have profound implications for both individuals and organizations. The ability to work "anytime, anywhere" allows "road warriors" to work without offices on planes, in hotels, and at client sites, and enables information workers to telecommute from their homes rather than traveling to work. This flexibility can be two-edged for individuals, who can work wherever they choose but may never escape the "virtual workplace." Organizations may reduce their overhead costs and improve their productivity, but they must also learn how to manage their decentralized work force. One major technological trend is the extension of "information superhighways" in the form of broadband networks; another is the increasing ubiquity of communications using wireless technologies (that will, however, initially provide access to squirts rather than floods of information). Personal communications networks using microcellular technology will allow people in urban areas not only to talk on pocket-sized telephones, but to transmit and receive data using wireless modems. In rural and developing areas, these services may be available from low earth-orbiting (LEO) satellite systems. On an international level, the death of distance has profound implications for the globalization of industries and nation al economies. ... ...munities, Growth, Competitiveness, Employment: The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21st Century, (White Paper). Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, Europe and the Global Information Society, Brussels: European Commission, 1994. Industry Canada, The Canadian Information Highway, Ottawa: Industry Canada, April 1994. Information Highway Advisory Council, Canada's Information Highway: Providing New Dimensions for Learning, Creativity and Entrepreneurship, Ottawa: Industry Canada, November 1994. Industry Canada, 1994. The G-7 is an association of seven major industrialized world powers: Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States . Commission of the European Communities, 1994. Hudson, Heather E., Global Connections: International Telecommunications Infrastructure and Policy, New York: Wiley, 1997, pp. 279-80. Cane, Alan, "Transforming the Way We Live and Work," "International Telecommunications: Financial Times Survey," Financial Times, October 3, 1995, pp. 1-2. Gregston, Brent, "Power and Privilege," Internet World, November 1995, p. 96. Schwankert, Steven, "Dragons at the Gates, " Internet World, November 1995, p.112.

Emergence of Communicative Language Teaching

Discuss the three terms â€Å"Approach†, â€Å"Method† and â€Å"Technique† and describe one Approach which provides the basis for a Method and subsequently some Techniques under that particular Method. APPROACH Theories about the nature of language and language learning Theory of language Structural Functional Interactional METHOD Objectives Organization of Content Syllabus Design Roles 1. Learner2. Teacher3. Materials Types of Interaction Types of activitiesContent Based TECHNIQUEImplementation of the design Classroom Practice Activities behavior's In English language teaching process, there are terms that teachers need to know. They are approach, method, and technique. About four decades ago (1963) Edward M. Anthony gave us a definition that has admirably withstood the test of time. According to Edward M. Anthony an approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of the language and the nature of language teaching and learning. In other w ords the word ‘approach’ in ELT refers to different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned.Let us move on to our second definition – of method. Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based on selected approach. It consists of a number of techniques, arranged in an order. When we talk about techniques we mean specific activities which take place in a classroom. Using flash cards in the classroom is a technique. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach too. According to Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, Approach refers to different theories about the nature of the language and how languages are learned.Method refers to a way of teaching a language based on systematic principles. It is an application of views on how language is taught and learned. Technique refers to what takes place in the classroom. The forthcoming analysis focuses on the behaviourist app roach, the audio lingual method and different drilling techniques. The Audio-Lingual Method The Audio-lingual method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory. Behaviourist theory professes that certain traits of living things could be trained through a system of reinforcement.The Audio-lingual method was widely used in the United States and other countries in the 1950’s and 1960’s. The theory underlying Audio-lingual method is that ‘language is primarily speech’. If listening and speaking skills were developed, they would form the foundation for developing reading and writing skills. As learning a language is acquiring a certain set of habits, this method recommends that the teachers of English should take up pronunciation practice, pattern drills and conversation practice in their classroom regularly.Another principle that has become the basis for this method is that all of us have learnt our languages b y listening to the language spoken by others and speaking it starting with monosyllabic disyllabic sounds. According to ELT experts a second language can be learnt in this way. The Audio-lingual method is a method that deals with a behaviorist theory that uses stimulus, response, and reinforcement. STIMULUSRESPONSEREINFORCEMENT Here are some psychological foundations of the Audio-lingual method. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behaviour. Language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written or printed form. An analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the process of generalization and discrimination. Explanation of how language functions under certain rules is not given by the teacher.Students should practice a pattern in different contexts and arrive at the analogy between the first and the second language. The teaching of grammar is best done inductively rather than deductively. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learnt only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system of that people who speak the language. Dialogues and drills form the basis of Audio-lingual classroom practices.The use of drills and pattern practice is a distinctive feature of the Audio-lingual method. Various kinds of drills are used. Types of Oral Drills Repetition: where the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it Teacher: This is the seventh month. Student: This is the seventh month Inflection: Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate the sandwiche s. Replacement: Where one word is replaced by another Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He bought it for half-price. Restatement: The student re-phrases an utteranceTeacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student: Don't smoke so often! Completion: where the student repeats the utterance in completed form. Techer: I’ll go my way and you go. Student: I’ll go my way and you go yours. Instruction materials in the Audio-lingual method assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner. †¢Tape recorders †¢Audiovisual equipments †¢Language laboratory In the late 1950s, the theoretical underpinnings of the method were questioned by linguists such as Noam Chomsky, who pointed out the limitations of structural linguistics.Despite being discredited as an effective teaching methodology in 1970, audio-lingualism continues to be used today. REFERENCES ?Richard. C. Jack and Rodgers. S. Theodore. 2003. Approaches and Methods in Language Teac hing . The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ?Rao Venugopal, K. 2002. Methods of Teaching English. Neelkamal Publications. pvt. ltd ? Allen, B. Teaching English as a Second Language. 1965. ?http//www. mindmeister. com ?http://en. Wikipedia. Org/wiki/audio-lingual-method

How the Stock Market Crash of 1929 Affected the United States Essay

The year of 1929 is marked by the Stock Market Crash in which most consider to be the beginning of the Great Depression. This was not the sole cause of the Great Depression, though. The Stock Market Crash was caused by an economy that was not stable enough to handle the high stock prices. The Stock Market Crash helped bring on the Great Depression which forced the United States government to make changes in the regulation of stock exchanges, providing much greater protection for investors. The United States was a young nation and was not always as powerful as it is now or was in 1929. The United States was formed from European citizens who wanted to start their lives over. So the United States had relatively little money compared to the financial status of the rest of the world. London at the time was considered the center of finance. The United States borrowed money from England and other countries to spur its industry. By 1960 it seemed that the United States would inevitably be the world’s most important business and financial power. The Civil War provided a boost for industry, which jump-started the gradual shift of financial power from London to New York. The United States had a valuable asset in the form of land. â€Å"The United States was forced to develop itself before it could worry about competing with the world. Hence, the amount of capital was far greater once available to be spent outside the United States. The year of 1914 can be considered the point at which the United States would never be second in the world again.† (Axon, 32) Europe was stricken with war and the United States was turned to for supplies. The â€Å"wealthy European countries were ravaged by war because of casualties, economic losses, and expensed of war over four years.† (Axon, 33) The United States only was in the war for a year and did not have its country damaged by the war. The United States emerged from World War I being owed billions of dollars for having financed most of the war and was acknowledged to be the leader of the Western world. The early 1920s were a time of booming industry, of soaring hope and confidence. The ups and downs of the stock market were hardly noticed by the average American. The average American was more concerned with their daily life than the state of the stock market. The economy was such that many new products and services were available to almost everyone, including the automobile, radios, and other products for the home. The stock market was controlled by professionals that worked for large firms who had good financial backing which made it easier to use the market advantageously. Small investors were never shut out of Wall Street but the professionals paid for stock tips and also rigged the market so that certain stocks would rise and fall. This gave small investors a much harder time in making money through the stock market. As the market began to grow more small investors entered the game and were really just gambling their money. Most were not successful but some got lucky or got a good stock tip and rode the rising market until they lost their money too with the Stock Market Crash. At this time nobody had any reason to believe that the stock market would not keep rising. â€Å"Throughout the 1920s a long boom took stock prices to peaks never before seen. From 1920 to 1929 stocks more than quadrupled in value. Many investors became convinced that stocks were a sure thing and borrowed heavily to invest more money in the market.† (PBS) As the market grew, the stock market became a way of life and was a highly discussed topic among common Americans who were eager to get a piece of the pie. Americans no longer were connected by the common bond of making a life for themselves like at the birth of the nation. The 1920s were an era of revolution in ideas, beliefs, inventions, and ways of living. â€Å"The nation was totally different after World War I than before. The United States experimented with Prohibition. The Jazz age rose from the streets of Harlem, NY. Women got the right to vote. The whole of society was convinced that anything was possible, not only in the stock market and finances, but also in every facet of life.† (Sherrow, 12) Most of this is taken for granted now because what was considered a new idea seems commonplace and because the Stock Market Crash of 1929 overshadowed the great improvements in society. Society’s attitude affected Wall Street, though. The large investing firms thought that the government should not be allowed to interfere with the speculation of finances. This is a common feeling when the economy is booming, that the government is always trying to oppress. The exact opposite is seen when the economy is in a depression and everyone turns to the government for help. The federal government was very limited in its control of the market and could not impose new control efforts at the time because the nation would not agree. As we know now, the stock market would have been better off if the government would have stepped in when the stock market became dangerously high. One of the main causes for the stock market to become dangerous was because large firms or groups of individuals practiced unfair techniques when buying and selling stocks. This was known as â€Å"rigging† the market. The stock market flows more smoothly through normal buying and selling activity but when certain groups tried to make money in an unfair way they hurt others in the process which concentrated capital. Large pools could control prices more than was healthy for the stock market. Some made fortunes others lost everything. An example was â€Å"a cigar stock at the time was selling for $115 a share. The market collapsed. I got a call from the company president. Could I loan him $200 million?† (Blaszczyk and Scranton, 337) To the public, the stock market seemed as though it would surely make them money, and were buying. The craze was a â€Å"frenzied finance that made Ponzi look like an amateur. (Blaszczyk and Scranton, 337) The insiders were controlling the market though, setting the stage for the greatest crash of all time. The booming economy in the United States was not typical of the whole world. England had its share of problems concerning currency. The people wanted gold to again be used as it was before the war. They felt that it was a valuable metal and provided a solid backing for currency. The British government finally agreed, after a lot of pressure, to re-instate the gold standard but it was a new version where gold would be used to back up paper money and gold would be used to handle international debts. The pound was put into use, which created a problem. The pound was overvalued in terms of other currencies meaning that people had to pay more to by British goods. Naturally, people bought goods elsewhere to avoid the currency exchange rate of the pound. Instead of realizing what was happening, the British tried to lower the price, which in turn lowered wages and caused strikes to break out in England around 1926. German’s were not better off. Of course their country was destroyed physically by war, but the financial system was very poor at this time in Germany. Germany was forced to pay reparations according to the Treaty of Versailles plus the inflation was so bad that German currency was absolutely worthless. The German public was enraged about this and the fact that they lost a lot of what they considered their land because of the war. The new government installed in Germany after the war called the Weimar republic was a democracy. The German public could not adjust to this making governmental intervention a difficult task. France and the rest of Europe faced the same effects. Inflation was uncontrolled and the political systems were thrown into upheaval. Since the United States was so financially secure at this time, countries like Britain and France naturally asked for assistance. They appealed to the Federal Reserve Board to make cuts in interest rates in the United States. This would make the United States less attractive to investors and would maybe cause investment in Europe instead. By increasing the money supply in the United States, the dollar would be worth less and make American goods more expensive while lowering the price of foreign goods. At this time the United States thought that this would not benefit it at this time. After all, the economy was booming, nearly everyone was working, people were making money from the stock market, and life was generally pleasant. Taking actions that would have hurt the United States would not have been appreciated by businessmen and normal citizens as well. The United States paid little attention to these pleas. There has always been talk that if the Federal Reserve Board would have stepped in that there would have been no boom in speculation, greatly reducing the risk of a crash. The argument against this is the fact that the Federal Reserve Banking system has little control of the economy, but can only make changes spurring growth or decline. Other theories put the blame on foreign countries too. One allegation states that stock speculation and â€Å"gambling† the market was a trait the United States adopted from Europe. However, the get rich quick attitude of Americans is just as great as the Europeans. The California Gold Rush and the Florida Real Estate Boom prove this. The United States Government can still consume most of the blame. At that day and age, it was hard to expect economists to predict exactly what would happen with the stock market rising so rapidly. They could have realized that it was a dangerous situation. The government felt too threatened by  business. When the government stepped in businessmen, bankers, and society in general criticized them for trying to take action when none was deemed necessary. By 1928 the stock market had reached the point of no return. The stock market fluctuated greatly and the risk of the stock market became greater. The rigging of stocks became so common that people of great esteem thought nothing wrong of manipulating stocks in way that actually defrauded the public. By† the inevitability of a market collapse was upon the United States but nobody expected that a full-fledged business depression was to come about because of it.† (Axon, 47) At this time three million shares were traded each day. Slowly it rose to four and five million shares per day. By November 1928 a daily volume of six million shares was reached. It must be realized that industrial stocks rose at a normal rate at this time, approximately growing by a third. The individual stocks are what marked disaster. For example, the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) grew an unheard of 400 percent in 1928. In 1929 the stock market continued to grow at a dangerous pace. People borrowed money at high interest rates figuring to make enough in the stock market to cover the interest and still profit greatly. With people concentrating so much energy in the stock market, few realized that production could not keep up with the stock market. The automobile and construction industries had a small decline but people disregarded it as normal. Few Americans decided to sell-out for a profit. Most refused to believe the boom was coming to a halt. Stock market prices were now driven up by the sheer power of speculative demand. In other words, there was nothing concrete to back up the stock prices. By mid-October, the stock market was in a bad state. No major boom could revive the quality stocks that took a sharp dive. Fear began to take the place of greed in Wall Street. The word â€Å"sell† was now heard more than the word â€Å"buy†. Brokers asked for more margins or more cash from the customer to be paid into their accounts. The customers, of course, could not afford it and the brokers sold the stock. This pushed stock prices even lower. Everyone began banking the large operators on Wall Street would step in because they had much more to lose than the small investor. The problem was that they could not afford to because they were already in trouble because of the sharp decline in their stocks. October 24, 1929 was called Black Thursday because this hope was squashed and stock prices plummeted. Even after this there was still some hope. That same day, bankers moved in trying to restore some of the mess. They were trying to restore some of the optimism in the market. This was not the case as the following Monday, October 28, 1929, the market was flooded with selling orders. The big bankers were no longer there because they were in their own trouble. The people that were hurt the most are those that put their whole lives into the stock market and now walked the streets, stunned about their losses. â€Å"Some of the more badly declining stocks from 1929 to 1933 are as follows: Consolidated Cigar common stock fell from $115 to $3. General Foods dropped from $82 to less than $20. General Motors fell from $91 to less than $8. US Steel dropped drastically from $261 to just over $21. The railroad stocks were hit the hardest. The New York Central Railroad alone fell to $9 from $256.† (Klingaman, 111) The Stock Market Crash of 1929 marked a new era that was not immediately realized. Just as the rising stock market had provided industry with the capital to expand, the falling market caused industry to move into recession.

Industrial Policy

INDUSTRIAL POLICY SINCE 1956 When India achieved Independence in 1947, the national consensus was in favour of rapid industrialization of the economy which was seen not only as the key to economic development but also to economic sovereignty. In the subsequent years, India's Industrial Policy evolved through successive Industrial Policy Resolutions and Industrial Policy Statements. Specific priorities for industrial development were also laid down in the successive Five Year Plans.Building on the so-called â€Å"Bombay Plan†1 in the pre-Independence era, the first Industrial Policy Resolution announced in 1948 laid down broad contours of the strategy of industrial development. At that time the Constitution of India had not taken final shape nor was the Planning Commission constituted. Moreover, the necessary legal framework was also not put in place. Not surprisingly therefore, the Resolution was somewhat broad in its scope and direction. Yet, an important distinction was made among industries to be kept under the exclusive ownership of Government, i. e. the public sector, those reserved for private sector and the joint sector. Subsequently, the Indian Constitution was adopted in January 1950, the Planning Commission was constituted in March 1950 and the Industrial (Department and Regulation) Act (IDR Act) was enacted in 1951 with the objective of empowering the Government to take necessary steps to regulate the pattern of industrial development through licensing. This paved the way for the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, which was the first comprehensive statement on the strategy for industrial development in India.Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was shaped by the Mahalanobis Model of growth, which suggested that emphasis on heavy industries would lead the economy towards a long term higher growth path. The Resolution widened the scope of the public sector. The objective was to accelerate 1 Bombay Plan prepared by leading Indian industrialists in 1944-45 had recommended government support for industrialization, including a direct role in the production of capital goods. economic growth and boost the process of industrialization as a means to achieving a socialistic pattern of society. Given the scarce capital and inadequate entrepreneurial base, the Resolution accorded a predominant role to the State to assume direct responsibility for industrial development. All industries of basic and strategic importance and those in the nature of public utility services besides those requiring large scale investment were reserved for the public sector.The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 classified industries into three categories. The first category comprised 17 industries (included in Schedule A of the Resolution) exclusively under the domain of the Government. These included inter alia, railways, air transport, arms and ammunition, iron and steel and atomic energy. Th e second category comprised 12 industries (included in Schedule B of the Resolution), which were envisaged to be progressively State owned but private sector was expected to supplement the efforts of the State.The third category contained all the remaining industries and it was expected that private sector would initiate development of these industries but they would remain open for the State as well. It was envisaged that the State would facilitate and encourage development of these industries in the private sector, in accordance with the programmes formulated under the Five Year Plans, by appropriate fiscal measures and ensuring adequate infrastructure. Despite the demarcation of industries into separate categories, the Resolution was flexible enough to allow the required adjustments and modifications in the national interest.Another objective spelt out in the Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was the removal of regional disparities through development of regions with low industrial base. Accordingly, adequate infrastructure for industrial development of such regions was duly emphasized. Given the potential to provide large-scale employment, the Resolution reiterated the Government’s determination to provide all sorts of assistance to small and cottage industries for wider dispersal of the industrial base and more equitable distribution of income.The Resolution, in fact, reflected the prevalent value system of India in the early 1950s, which was centered around self sufficiency in industrial 3 production. The Industrial Policy Resolution – 1956 was a landmark policy statement and it formed the basis of subsequent policy announcements. Industrial Policy Measures in the 1960s and 1970s Monopolies Inquiry Commission (MIC) was set up in 1964 to review various aspects pertaining to concentration of economic power and operations of industrial licensing under the IDR Act, 1951.While emphasizing that the planned economy contributed to the grow th of industry, the Report by MIC concluded that the industrial licensing system enabled big business houses to obtain disproportionately large share of licenses which had led to pre-emption and foreclosure of capacity. Subsequently, the Industrial Licensing Policy Inquiry Committee (Dutt Committee), constituted in 1967, recommended that larger industrial houses should be given licenses only for setting up industry in core and heavy investment sectors, thereby necessitating reorientation of industrial licensing policy.In 1969, the monopolies and restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act was introduced to enable the Government to effectively control concentration of economic power. The Dutt Committee had defined large business houses as those with assets of more than Rs. 350 million. The MRTP Act, 1969 defined large business houses as those with assets of Rs. 200 million and above. Large industries were designated as MRTP companies and were eligible to participate in industries that wer e not reserved for the Government or the Small scale sector.The new Industrial Licensing Policy of 1970 classified industries into four categories. First category, termed as ‘Core Sector’, consisted of basic, critical and strategic industries. Second category termed as ‘Heavy Investment Sector’, comprised projects involving investment of more than Rs. 50 million. The third category, the ‘Middle Sector’ consisted of projects with investment in the range of Rs. 10 million to Rs. 50 million. The fourth category was ‘Delicensed Sector’, in which investment was less than Rs. 0 million and was exempted from licensing requirements. The industrial licensing policy of 1970 4 confined the role of large business houses and foreign companies to the core, heavy and export oriented sectors. The Industrial Policy Statement – 1973 With a view to prevent excessive concentration of industrial activity in the large industrial houses, this Stat ement gave preference to small and medium entrepreneurs over the large houses and foreign companies in setting up of new capacity particularly in the production of mass consumption goods.New undertakings of up to Rs. 10 million by way of fixed assets were exempted from licensing requirements for substantial expansion of assets. This exemption was not allowed to MRTP companies, foreign companies and existing licensed or registered undertakings having fixed assets of Rs. 50 million and above. The Industrial Policy Statement -1977 This Statement emphasized decentralization of industrial sector with increased role for small scale, tiny and cottage industries. It also provided for close interaction between industrial and agricultural sectors.Highest priority was accorded to power generation and transmission. It expanded the list of items reserved for exclusive production in the small scale sector from 180 to more than 500. For the first time, within the small scale sector, a tiny unit wa s defined as a unit with investment in machinery and equipment up to Rs. 0. 1 million and situated in towns or villages with a population of less than 50,000 (as per 1971 census). Basic goods, capital goods, high technology industries important for development of small scale and agriculture sectors were clearly delineated for large scale sector.It was also stated that foreign companies that diluted their foreign equity up to 40 per cent under Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) 1973 were to be treated at par with the Indian companies. The Policy Statement of 1977 also issued a list of industries where no foreign collaboration of financial or technical nature was allowed as indigenous technology was already available. Fully owned foreign companies were allowed only in highly export oriented sectors or sophisticated technology areas. For all approved foreign investments, companies were completely free to repatriate capital and remit profits, dividends, royalties, etc. Further, in o rder to ensure balanced regional development, it was decided not to issue fresh licenses for setting up new industrial units within certain limits of large metropolitan cities (more than 1 million population) and urban areas (more than 0. 5 million population). Industrial Policy Statement -1980 The industrial Policy Statement of 1980 placed accent on promotion of competition in the domestic market, technological upgradatrion and modernization of industries.Some of the socio-economic objectives spelt out in the Statement were i) optimum utilisation of installed capacity, ii) higher productivity, iii) higher employment levels, iv) removal of regional disparities, v) strengthening of agricultural base, vi) promotion of export oriented industries and vi) consumer protection against high prices and poor quality. Policy measures were announced to revive the efficiency of public sector undertakings (PSUs) by developing the management cadres in functional fields viz. operations, finance, ma rketing and information system. An automatic expansion of capacity up to five per cent per annum was allowed, particularly in the core sector and in industries with long-term export potential. Special incentives were granted to industrial units which were engaged in industrial processes and technologies aiming at optimum utilization of energy and the exploitation of alternative sources of energy. In order to boost the development of small scale industries, the investment limit was raised to Rs. 2 million in small scale units and Rs. . 5 million in ancillary units. In the case of tiny units, investment limit was raised to Rs. 0. 2 million. Industrial Policy Measures during the 1980s Policy measures initiated in the first three decades since Independence facilitated the establishment of basic industries and building up of a broadbased infrastructure in the country. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1900), recognized the need for consolidation of these strengths and initiating policy me asures to prepare the Indian industry to respond effectively to emerging challenges. A number of measures were initiated towards technological and managerial modernization to improve productivity, quality and to reduce cost of production. The public sector was freed from a number of constraints and was provided with greater autonomy. There was some progress in the process of deregulation during the 1980s. In 1988, all industries, excepting 26 industries specified in the negative list, were exempted from licensing. The exemption was, however, subject to investment and locational limitations.The automotive industry, cement, cotton spinning, food processing and polyester filament yarn industries witnessed modernization and expanded scales of production during the 1980s. With a view to promote industrialization of backward areas in the country, the Government of India announced in June, 1988 the Growth Centre Scheme under which 71 Growth Centers were proposed to be set up throughout the country. Growth centers were to be endowed with basic infrastructure facilities such as power, water, telecommunications and banking to enable them to attract industries.Industrial Policy Statement- 1991 The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 stated that â€Å"the Government will continue to pursue a sound policy framework encompassing encouragement of entrepreneurship, development of indigenous technology through investment in research and development, bringing in new technology, dismantling of the regulatory system, development of the capital markets and increased competitiveness for the benefit of common man†.It further added that â€Å"the spread of industrialization to backward areas of the country will be actively promoted through appropriate incentives, institutions and infrastructure investments†. The objective of the Industrial Policy Statement – 1991 was to maintain sustained growth in productivity, enhance gainful employment and achieve optimal util ization of human resources, to attain international competitiveness, and to transform India into a major partner and player in the global arena. Quite clearly, the focus of the policy was to unshackle the Indian industry from bureaucratic controls. This called for a number of far-reaching reforms : †¢ A substantial modification of Industry Licencing Policy was deemed necessary with a view to ease restraints on capacity creation, respond to emerging domestic and global opportunities by improving productivity. Accordingly, the Policy Statement included abolition of industrial licensing for most industries, barring a handful of industries for reasons of security and trategic concerns, social and environmental issues. Compulsory licencing was required only in respect of 18 industries. These included, inter alia, coal and lignite, distillation and brewing of alcoholic drinks, cigars and cigarettes, drugs and pharmaceuticals, white goods, hazardous chemicals. The small scale sector c ontinued to be reserved. Norms for setting up industries (except for industries subject to compulsory licensing) in cities with more than one million population were further liberalised. Recognising the complementarily of domestic and foreign investment, foreign direct investment was accorded a significant role in policy announcements of 1991. Foreign direct investment (FDI) up to 51 per cent foreign equity in high priority industries requiring large investments and advanced technology was permitted. Foreign equity up to 51 per cent was also allowed in trading companies primarily engaged in export activities. These important initiatives were expected to provide a boost to investment besides enabling access to high technology and marketing expertise of foreign companies. With a view to inject technological dynamism in the Indian industry, the Government provided automatic approval for technological agreements related to high priority industries and eased procedures for hiring of fore ign technical expertise. †¢ Major initiatives towards restructuring of public sector units (PSUs) were initiated, in view of their low productivity, over staffing, lack of technological upgradation and low rate of return. In order to raise resources and ensure wider public participation PSUs, it was decided to offer its shareholding stake to mutual funds, financial institutions, general public and workers. Similarly, in order to revive and rehabilitate chronically sick PSUs, it was decided to refer them to the Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction (BIFR). The Policy also provided for greater managerial autonomy to the Boards of PSUs. †¢ The Industrial Policy Statement of 1991 recognized that the Government’s intervention in investment decisions of large companies through MRTP Act had proved to be deleterious for industrial growth.Accordingly, pre-entry scrutiny of investment decisions of MRTP companies was abolished. The thrust of policy was more on cont rolling unfair and restrictive trade practices. The provisions restricting mergers, amalgamations and takeovers were also repealed. Industrial Policy Measures Since 1991 Since 1991, industrial policy measures and procedural simplifications have been reviewed on an ongoing basis. Presently, there are only six industries which require compulsory licensing. Similarly, there are only three industries reserved for the public sector.Some of important policy measures initiated since 1991 are set out below: †¢ Since 1991, promotion of foreign direct investment has been an integral part of India’s economic policy. The Government has ensured a liberal and transparent foreign investment regime where most activities are opened to foreign investment on automatic route without any limit on the extent of foreign ownership. FDI up to 100 per cent has also been allowed under automatic route for most manufacturing activities in Special Economic Zones (SEZs).More recently, in 2004, the FDI limits were raised in the private banking sector (up to 74 per cent), oil exploration (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product marketing (up to 100 per cent), petroleum product pipelines (up to 100 per cent), natural gas and LNG pipelines (up to 100 per cent) and printing of scientific and technical magazines, periodicals and journals (up to 100 per cent). In 9 February 2005, the FDI ceiling in telecom sector in certain services was increased from 49 per cent to 74 per cent. Reservation of items of manufacture exclusively in the small scale sector has been an important tenet of industrial policy. Realizing the increased import competition with the removal of quantitative restrictions since April 2001, the Government has adopted a policy of dereservation and has pruned the list of items reserved for SSI sector gradually from 821 items as at end March 1999 to 506 items as on April 6, 2005. Further, the Union Budget 2005-06 has proposed to dereserve 108 items which were identified by M inistry of Small Scale Industries.The investment limit in plant and machinery of small scale units has been raised by the Government from time to time. To enable some of the small scale units to achieve required economies of scale, a differential investment limit has been adopted for them since October 2001. Presently, there are 41 reserved items which are allowed investment limit up to Rs. 50 million instead of present limit of Rs. 10 million applicable for other small scale units. †¢ Equity participation up to 24 per cent of the total shareholding in small scale units by other industrial undertakings has been llowed. The objective therein has been to enable the small sector to access the capital market and encourage modernization, technological upgradation, ancillarisation, sub-contracting, etc. †¢ Under the framework provided by the Competition Act 2002, the Competition Commission of India was set up in 2003 so as to prevent practices having adverse impact on competitio n in markets. †¢ In an effort to mitigate regional imbalances, the Government announced a new North-East Industrial Policy in December 1997 for promoting industrialization in the North-Eastern region.This policy is applicable for the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. The Policy has provided various concessions to industrial units in the North Eastern Region, e. g. , 10 development of industrial infrastructure, subsidies under various schemes, excise and income-tax exemption for a period of 10 years, etc. North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. has been designated as the nodal disbursing agency under the Scheme. †¢ The focus of disinvestment process of PSUs has shifted from sale of minority stakes to strategic sales.Up to December 2004, PSUs have been divested to an extent of Rs. 478 billion. †¢ Apart from general policy measures, some industry specific measures have also been initiated. For instance, Elec tricity Act 2003 has been enacted which envisaged to delicense power generation and permit captive power plants. It is also intended to facilitate private sector participation in transmission sector and provide open access to grid sector. Various policy measures have facilitated increased private sector participation in key infrastructure sectors such as, telecommunication, roads and ports.Foreign equity participation up to 100 per cent has been allowed in construction and maintenance of roads and bridges. MRTP provisions have been relaxed to encourage private sector financing by large firms in the highway sector. Evidently, in the process of evolution of industrial policy in India, the Government’s intervention has been extensive. Unlike many East Asian countries which used the State intervention to build strong private sector industries, India opted for the State control over key industries in the initial phase of development. In order to promote these industries theGovernm ent not only levied high tariffs and imposed import restrictions, but also subsidized the nationalized firms, directed investment funds to them, and controlled both land use and many prices. In India, there has been a consensus for long on the role of government in providing infrastructure and maintaining stable macroeconomic policies. However, the path to be pursued toward industrial development has evolved over time. The form of government intervention in the development strategy needs to be chosen from the two alternatives: ‘Outward-looking development 1 policies’ encourage not only free trade but also the free movement of capital, workers and enterprises. By contrast, ‘inward-looking development policies’ stress the need for one’s own style of development. India initially adopted the latter strategy. The advocates of import substitution in India believed that we should substitute imports with domestic production of both consumer goods and sophist icated manufactured items while ensuring imposition of high tariffs and quotas on imports.In the long run, these advocates cite the benefits of greater domestic industrial diversification and the ultimate ability to export previously protected manufactured goods, as economies of scale, low labour costs, and the positive externalities of learning by doing cause domestic prices to become more competitive than world prices. However, pursuit of such a policy forced the Indian industry to have low and inferior technology. It did not expose the industry to the rigours of competition and therefore it resulted in low efficiency.The inferior technology and inefficient production practices coupled with focus on traditional sectors choked further expansion of the India industry and thereby limited its ability to expand employment opportunities. Considering these inadequacies, the reforms currently underway aim at infusing the state of the art technology, increasing domestic and external compet ition and diversification of the industrial base so that it can expand and create additional employment opportunities. In retrospect, the Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948 and 1956 reflected the desire of the Indian State to achieve self sufficiency in industrial production.Huge investments by the State in heavy industries were designed to put the Indian industry on a higher long-term growth trajectory. With limited availability of foreign exchange, the effort of the Government was to encourage domestic production. This basic strategy guided industrialization until the mid-1980s. Till the onset of reform process in 1991, industrial licensing played a crucial role in channeling investments, controlling entry and expansion of capacity in the Indian industrial sector. As such industrialization occurred in a protected environment, which led to various distortions.Tariffs and quantitative controls largely kept foreign competition out of the domestic 12 market, and most Indian manufac turers looked on exports only as a residual possibility. Little attention was paid to ensure product quality, undertaking R for technological development and achieving economies of scale. The industrial policy announced in 1991, however, substantially dispensed with industrial licensing and facilitated foreign investment and technology transfers, and threw open the areas hitherto reserved for the public sector.The policy focus in the recent years has been on deregulating the Indian industry, enabling industrial restructuring, allowing the industry freedom and flexibility in responding to market forces and providing a business environment that facilitates and fosters overall industrial growth. The future growth of the Indian industry as widely believed, is crucially dependent upon improving the overall productivity of the manufacturing sector, rationalisation of the duty structure, technological upgradation, the search for export markets through promotional efforts and trade agreemen ts and creating an enabling legal environment.Bibliography 1. Ahluwalia, I. J. Productivity and Growth in Indian Manufacturing, Oxford University Press, Delhi , 1991. 2. Government of India Annual Report 2003-04, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 3. Government of India Handbook of Industrial Policy and Statistics (Various Issues), Office of Economic Adviser, Ministry of Commerce and Industry. New Delhi. 4. Government of India Economic Survey 2004-05, Ministry of Finance. New Delhi